Andika list ya philosopher 1-10
Usituandikie namb shufa pk yake.
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0 John Locke
The most important thinker of modern politics is the most directly
responsible for Thomas Jefferson’s rhetoric in the Declaration of
Independence, and the rhetoric in the U. S. Constitution. Locke is
referred to as the “Father of Liberalism,” because of his development
of the principles of humanism and individual freedom, founded
primarily by #1. It is said that liberalism proper, the belief in equal
rights under the law, begins with Locke. He penned the phrase
“government with the consent of the governed.” His three “natural
rights,” that is, rights innate to all human beings, were and remain
“life, liberty, and estate.”
He did not approve of the European idea of nobility enabling some to
acquire land through lineage, while the poor remained poor. Locke is
the man responsible, through Jefferson primarily, for the absence of
nobility in America. Although nobility and birthrights still exist in
Europe, especially among the few kings and queens left, the practice
has all but vanished. The true democratic ideal did not arrive in the
modern world until Locke’s liberal theory was taken up.
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9 Epicurus
Epicurus has gotten a bit of an unfair reputation over the centuries
as a teacher of self-indulgence and excess delight. He was soundly
criticized by a lot of Christian polemicists (those who make war
against all thought but Christian thought), especially during the
Middle Ages, because he was thought to be an atheist, whose
principles for a happy life were passed down to this famous set of
statements: “Don’t fear god; don’t worry about death; what is good
is easy to get; what is terrible is easy to endure.”
He advocated the principle of refusing belief in anything that is not
tangible, including any god. Such intangible things he considered
preconceived notions, which can be manipulated. You may think of
Epicureanism as “no matter what happens, enjoy life, because you
only get one and it doesn’t last long.” Epicurus’s idea of living
happily centered on just treatment of others, avoidance of pain and
living in such a way as to please oneself, but not to overindulge in
anything.
He also advocated a version of the Golden Rule, “It is impossible to
live a pleasant life without living wisely and well and justly (agreeing
‘neither to harm nor be harmed’), and it is impossible to live wisely
and well and justly without living a pleasant life. “Wisely,” at least for
Epicurus, would be avoidance of pain, danger, disease, etc.; “well”
would be proper diet and exercise; “justly,” in the Golden Rule’s
sense of not harming others because you do not want to be harmed.
8 Zeno of Citium
You may not be as familiar with him as with most of the others on
this list, but Zeno founded the school of Stoicism. Stoicism comes
from the Greek “stoa,” which is a roofed colonnade, especially that of
the Poikile, which was a cloistered piazza on the north side of the
Athenian marketplace, in the 3rd Century BC. Stoicism is based on
the idea that anything which causes us to suffer in life is actually an
error in our judgment, and that we should always have absolute
control over our emotions. Rage, elation, depression are all simple
flaws in a person’s reason, and thus, we are only emotionally weak
when we allow ourselves to be. Put another way, the world is what
we make of it.
Epicureanism is the usual school of thought considered the opposite
of Stoicism, but today many people mistake one for the other or
combine them. Epicureanism argues that displeasures do exist in life
and must be avoided, in order to enter a state of perfect mental
peace (ataraxia, in Greek). Stoicism argues that mental peace must
be acquired out of your own will not to let anything upset you. Death
is a necessity, so why feel depressed when someone dies?
Depression doesn’t help. It only hurts. Why get enraged over
something? The rage will not result in anything good. And so, in
controlling one’s emotions, a state of mental peace is brought
about. Of importance is to shun desire: you may strive for what you
need, but only that and nothing more. What you want will lead to
excess, and excess doesn’t help, but hurts.
7 Avicenna
His full name is Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Sīnā, the last
two words of which were Latinized into the more common form in
Western history. He lived in the Persian Empire from c. 980 AD to
1037. The Dark Ages were not so dark. Aside from his stature as a
philosopher, he was also the world’s preeminent physician during his
life. His two most well known works today are The Book of Healing
(which has nothing to do with physical medicine) and The Canon of
Medicine, which was his compilation of all known medical knowledge
at that time.
Influenced primarily by #1, his Book of Healing deals with everything
from logic, to math, to music, to science. He proposed in it that
Venus is closer than the Sun to Earth. Imagine not knowing that for
a fact. The Sun looks a lot closer than Venus, but he got it right. He
rejected astrology as a true science, since everything in it is based
on conjecture, not evidence. He theorized that some fluid deep
underground was responsible for the fossilization of bone and wood,
arguing that “a powerful mineralizing and petrifying virtue which
arises in certain stony spots, or emanates suddenly from the earth
during earthquake and subsidences…petrifies whatever comes into
contact with it. As a matter of fact, the petrifaction of the bodies of
plants and animals is not more extraordinary than the
transformation of waters.”
This is not correct, but it’s closer than you might believe. Petrifaction
can occur in any organic material, and involves the material, most
notably wood, being impregnated by silica deposits, gradually
changing from its original materials into stone. Avicenna is the first
to describe the five classical senses: taste, touch, vision, hearing
and smell. He may have been the world’s first systematic
psychologist, in a time when people suffering from a mental disorder
were said to be possessed by demons. Avicenna argued that there
were somatic possibilities for recovery inherent in all aspects of a
person’s body, including the brain.
John Stuart Mill’s five methods for inductive logic stem mostly from
Avicenna, who first expounded on three of them: agreement,
difference and concomitant variation. It would take too long to
explain them in this list, but they are all forms of syllogisms, and
every philosopher and student of philosophy is familiar with them
from the beginning of education in the subject. They are critical to
the scientific method, and whenever someone forms a statement as
a syllogism, s/he is using at least one of the methods.
6 Thomas Aquinas
Thomas will forever be remembered as the guy who supposedly
proved the existence of God by arguing that the Universe had to
have been created by something, since everything in existence has a
beginning and an end. This is now referred to as the “First Cause”
argument, and all philosophers after Thomas have wrestled with
proving or disproving the theory. He actually based it on the notion
of “ού κινούμενον κινεῖ,” of #1. The Greek means “one who moves
while not moving” – or “the unmoved mover”.
Thomas founded everything he postulated firmly in Christianity, and
for this reason, he is not universally popular, today. Even Christians
consider that, since he derived all his ethical teachings from the
Bible, Thomas is not independently authoritative of any of those
teachings. But his job, in teaching the common people around him,
was to get them to understand ethics without all the abstract
philosophy. He expounded on #2’s principles of what we now call
“cardinal virtues:” justice, courage, prudence and temperance. He
was able to reach the masses with this simple, four-part instruction.
He made five famous arguments for the existence of God, which are
still discussed hotly on both sides: theist and atheist. Of those five,
which he intended to define the nature of God, one is called “the
unity of God,” which is to say that God is not divisible. He has
essence and existence, and these two qualities cannot be separated.
Thus, if we are able to express something as possessing two or
more qualities, and cannot separate the qualities, then the statement
itself proves that there is a God, and Thomas’s example is the
statement, “God exists,” in which statement subject and predicate
are identical.
5 Confucius
Master Kong Qiu, as his name translates from Chinese, lived from
551 to 479 BC, and remains the most important single philosopher in
Eastern history. He espoused significant principles of ethics and
politics, in a time when the Greeks were espousing the same things.
We think of democracy as a Greek invention, a Western idea, but
Confucius wrote in his Analects that “the best government is one
that rules through ‘rites’ and the people’s natural morality, rather
than by using bribery and coercion. This may sound obvious to us
today, but he wrote it in the early 500s to late 400s BC. It is the
same principle of democracy that the Greeks argued for and
developed: the people’s morality is in charge; therefore, rule by the
people.
Confucius defended the idea of an Emperor, but also advocated
limitations to the emperor’s power. The emperor must be honest and
his subjects must respect him, but he must also deserve that
respect. If he makes a mistake, his subjects must offer suggestions
to correct him, and he must consider them. Any ruler who acted
contrary to these principles was a tyrant, and thus a thief more than
a ruler.
Confucius also devised his own, independent version of the Golden
Rule, which had existed for at least a century in Greece before him.
His phrasing was almost identical, but then furthered the idea: “What
one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else;
what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing
to grant to others.” The first statement is in the negative, and
constitutes a passive desire not to harm others. The second
statement is much more important, constituting an active desire to
help others. The only other philosopher of antiquity to advocate the
Golden Rule in the positive form is Jesus of Nazareth.
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4 Rene Descartes
Descartes lived from 1596 to 1650, and today he is referred to as
“the Father of Modern Philosophy.” He created analytical geometry,
based on his now immortal Cartesian coordinate system, immortal in
the sense that we are all taught it in school, and that it is still
perfectly up-to-date in almost all branches of mathematics.
Analytical geometry is the study of geometry using algebra and the
Cartesian coordinate system. He discovered the laws of refraction
and reflection. He also invented the superscript notation still used
today to indicate the powers of exponents.
He advocated dualism, which is very basically defined as the power
of the mind over the body: strength is derived by ignoring the
weaknesses of the human physique and relying on the infinite power
of the human mind. Descartes’s most famous statement, now
practically the motto of existentialism: “Je pense donc je suis;”
“Cogito, ergo sum;” “I think, therefore I am.” This is not meant to
prove the existence of one’s body. Quite the opposite, it is meant to
prove the existence of one’s mind. He rejected perception as
unreliable, and considered deduction the only reliable method for
examining, proving and disproving anything.
He also adhered to the Ontological Argument for the Existence of a
Christian God, stating that, because God is benevolent, Descartes
can have some faith in the account of reality his senses provide him,
for God has provided him with a working mind and sensory system
and does not desire to deceive him. From this supposition, however,
Descartes finally establishes the possibility of acquiring knowledge
about the world based on deduction and perception. In terms of the
study of knowledge therefore, he can be said to have contributed
such ideas as a rigorous conception of foundationalism (basic
beliefs) and the possibility that reason is the only reliable method of
attaining knowledge.
3 Paul of Tarsus
The wild card of this list, but give him fair consideration. Paul
accomplished more with the few letters we have of his, to various
churches in Asia Minor, Israel and Rome, than any other mortal
person in the Bible, except Jesus himself. Jesus founded
Christianity. But without Paul, the religion would have died in a few
hundred years at best, or remained too insular to invite the entire
world into its faith, as Jesus wanted.
Paul had more than one falling out with Peter, primarily among the
other Disciples. Peter insisted that at least one or two of the Jewish
traditions remain as requirements, along with faith in Jesus, for one
to be counted as Christian. Paul insisted that faith in Jesus is all that
is required, and neither circumcision, refusal of certain foods or any
other Jewish custom was necessary, because the world was now,
and forevermore, under a state of Grace in Jesus, not a state of Law
according to Moses. This principle of a state of grace, which is now
central to all sects of Christianity, was Paul’s idea (if not Jesus’s), as
was the concept of God’s moral law (in Ten Commandments) being
innately understood by all men once they reach the age of reason,
by which law God will hold all men accountable on his Day of
Judgment.
He is especially impressive to have systematized these principles
flawlessly, having never met Jesus in person, and in direct
opposition to Peter and several other Disciples. Many theologists
and experts on Christianity and its history even call Paul, and not
Jesus, the founder of Christianity. That may be going a bit too far,
but keep in mind that the Disciples intended to keep Christianity for
themselves, as the proper form of Judaism, to which only Jews
could convert. Anyone could symbolically become a Jew by
circumcision and obedience of the Mosaic Laws (every one of them,
not just the Big Ten). Paul argued against this, stating that as Christ
was the absolute greatest good that the world would ever see, and
Almighty because he and the Father are one, then the grace of Christ
is sufficiently powerful to save anyone from his or her sin, whether
Jewish, Gentile or anything else. If the religion were to have lasted
to present day without Paul’s letters championing the grace of Christ
over the Law of Moses, Christianity would just a minor sect of
Judaism.
2 Plato
Plato lived from c. 428 to c. 348 BC, and founded the Western
world’s first school of higher education, the Academy of Athens.
Almost all of Western philosophy can be traced back to Plato, who
was taught by Socrates, and preserved through his own writings,
some of Socrates’s ideas. If Socrates wrote anything down, it has
not survived directly. Plato and Xenophon, another of his students,
recounted a lot of his teachings, as did the playwright Aristophanes.
One of Plato’s most famous quotations concerns politics, “Until
philosophers rule as kings or those who are now called kings and
leading men genuinely and adequately philosophize, that is, until
political power and philosophy entirely coincide, while the many
natures who at present pursue either one exclusively are forcibly
prevented from doing so, cities will have no rest from evils…nor, I
think, will the human race.” What he means is that any person(s) in
control of a nation or city or city-state must be wise, and that if they
are not, then they are ineffectual rulers. It is only through philosophy
that the world can be free of evils. Plato’s preferred government was
one of benevolent aristrocrats, those born of nobility, who are well
educated and good, who help the common people to live better lives.
He argued against democracy proper, rule by the people themselves,
since in his view, a democracy had murdered his teacher, Socrates.
Plato’s most enduring theory, if not his political theories, is that of
“The Forms.” Plato wrote about these forms throughout many of his
works, and asserted, by means of them, that immaterial abstractions
possess the highest, most fundamental kind of reality. All things of
the material world can change, and our perception of them also,
which means that the reality of the material world is weaker, less
defined than that of the immaterial abstractions. Plato argued that
something must have created the Universe. Whatever it is, the
Universe is its offspring, and we, living on Earth, our bodies and
everything that we see and hear and touch around us, are less real
than the creator of the Universe, and the Universe itself. This is a
foundation on which #4 based his understanding of existentialism.
1 Aristotle
Aristotle topped another of this lister’s lists, heading the category of
philosophy, so his rank on this one is not entirely surprising. But
consider that Aristotle is the first to have written systems by which
to understand and criticize everything from pure logic to ethics,
politics, literature, even science. He theorized that there are four
“causes”, or qualities, of any thing in existence: the material cause,
which is what the subject is made of; the formal cause, or the
arrangement of the subject’s material; the effective cause, the
creator of the thing; and the final cause, which is the purpose for
which a subject exists.
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